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The Svetambar Sub-Sects

Like the Digambara sect, the Svetambara sect has also been split into three main sub-sects:

           1. Murtipujaka,
           2. Sthanakvasi,
                         3. Terapanthi

Murtipujaka

The original stock of the Svetambaras is known as Murtipujaka Svetambaras since they are the thorough worshippers of idols. They offer flowers, fruits, saffron, etc. to their idols and invariably adorn them with rich clothes and jeweled ornaments.
Their ascetics cover their mouth with strips of cloth while speaking, otherwise they keep them in their hands. They stay in temples or in the specially reserved buildings known as upasrayas. They collect food in their bowls from the sravakas or householders' houses and eat at their place of stay.
The Murtipujaka sub-sect is also known by terms like (i) Pujera (worshippers), (ii) Deravasi (temple residents). (iii) Chaityavasi (temple residents) and (iv) Mandira-margi (temple goers)
The Murtipujaka Svetambaras are found scattered all over India for business purposes in large urban centers, still they are concentrated mostly in Gujarat.

STHANAKVASI

The Sthanakvasi arose not directly from the Svetambaras but as reformers of an older reforming sect, viz., the Lonka sect of Jainism. This Lonka sect was founded in about 1474 A.D. by Lonkashaha, a rich and well-read merchant of Ahmedabad. The main principle of this sect was not to practice idol-worship. Later on, some of the members of the Lonka sect disapproved of the ways of life of their ascetics, declaring that they lived less strictly than Mahavira would have wished. A Lonka sect layman, Viraji of Surat, received initiation as a Yati, i.e., an ascetic, and won great admiration on account of the strictness of his life. Many people of the Lonka sect joined this reformer and they took the name of Sthanakvasi, meaning those who do not have their religious activities in temples but carry on their religious duties in places known as Sthanakas which are like prayer-halls.
The Sthanakvasi are also called by terms as (a) Dhundhiya (searchers) and (b)Sadhumargi (followers of Sadhus, i.e., ascetics). Except on the crucial point of idol-worship, Sthanakvasi do not differ much from other Svetambara Jainas and hence now-a-days they invariably call themselves as Svetambara Sthanakvasi. However, there are some differences between the Sthanakvasi; and the Murtipujaka Svetambaras in the observance of some religious practices. The Sthanakvasi do not believe in idol-worship at all. As such they do not have temples but only sthanakas, that is, prayer halls, where they carry on their religious fasts, festivals, practices, prayers, discourses, etc. Further, the ascetics of Sthanakvasi cover their mouths with strips of cloth for all the time and they do not use the cloth of yellow or any other color (of course, except white). Moreover, the Sthanakvasi admit the authenticity of only 31 of the scriptures of Svetambaras. Furthermore, the Sthanakvasi do not have faith in the places of pilgrimage and do not participate in the religious festivals of Murtipujaka Svetambaras.
The Svetambara Sthanakvasi are also spread in different business centers in India but they are found mainly in Gujarat, Punjab, Harayana and Rajasthan.
It is interesting to note that the two non-idolatrous sub-sects, viz., Taranapanthis among the Digambaras and Sthanakvasi among the Svetambaras, came very late in the history of the Jaina Church and to some extent it can safely be said that the Mohammedan influence on the religious mind of India was greatly responsible for their rise. In this connection Mrs. S. Stevenson observes: "If one effect of the Mohammedan conquest, however, was to drive many of the Jainas into closer union with their fellow idol-worshippers in the face of iconoclasts. Another effect was to drive others away from idolatry altogether. No oriental could hear a fellow oriental’s passionate outcry against idolatry without doubts as to the righteousness of the practice entering his mind, Naturally enough it is in Ahmedabad, the city of Gujarat, that was most under Mohammedan influence, that we can first trace the stirring of these doubts. About 1474 A.D. the Lonka sect, the first of the non-idolatrous Jaina sects, arose and was followed by the Dhundhiya or Sthanakvasi sect about 1653 A.D. dates which coincide strikingly with the Lutheran and Puritan movements in Europe." (vide Heart of Jainism.

Terapanthi

The terapanthi sub-sect is derived from the Sthanakvasi; section. The Terapanthi sub-sect was founded by Swami Bhikkanaji Maharaj. Swami Bhikkanaji was formerly a Sthanakvasi saint and had initiation from his Guru,by name Acharya Raghunatha. Swami Bhikkanaji had differences with his Guru on several aspects of religious practices of Sthanakvasi ascetics and when these took a serious turn, he founded Terapantha on the full-moon day in the month of Asadha in the year V.S. 1817, i.e., 1760 A.D.
As Acharya Bh1kkanaji laid stress on the 13 religious principles, namely, (i) five Mahavratas (great vows), (ii) five samitis (regulations) and (iii) three Guptis (controls or restraints), his sub-sect was known as the Tera(meaning thirteen)-pantha sub-sect. In this connection it is interesting to note that two other interpretations have been given for the use of the term Terapantha for the sub-sect. According to one account, it is mentioned that as there were only 13 monks and 13 laymen in the pantha when it was founded, it was called as Tera(meaning thirteen)-pantha. Sometimes another interpretation of the term Terapantha is given by its followers. Terameans yours and pantha means path; in other words, it means, "Oh! Lord Mahavira! it is Thy path".
The Terapanthis are non-idolatrous and are very finely organized under the complete direction of one Acharya, that is, religious head. In its history of little more than 200 years, the Terapantha had a succession of only 9Acharyas from the founder Acharya Bhikkanaji as the First Acharya to the present Acharya Tulasi as the 9th Acharya.
This practice of regulating the entire Pantha by one Acharya only has become a characteristic feature of the Terapantha and an example for emulation by other Panthas. It is noteworthy that all monks and nuns of the Terapantha scrupulously follow the orders of their Acharya, preach under his guidance and carry out all religious activities in accordance with his instructions. Further, the Terapantha regularly observes a remarkable festival known as Maryada Mahotasava. This distinctive festival is celebrated every year on the 7th day of the bright half of the month of Magha when all ascetics and lay disciples, male and female, meet together at one predetermined place and discuss the various problems of Terapanthis.
The penance of Terapanthis is considered to be very severe. The dress of Terapanthi monks and nuns is akin to that of Sthanakvasi monks and nuns. But there is a difference in the length of muhapatti, i.e., a piece of white cloth kept always on the mouth. The Terapanthis believe that idolatry does not provide deliverance and attach importance to the practice of meditation.
Further, it may be stressed that the Terapantha is known for its disciplined organization characterized by one Acharya (i.e., religious head), one code of conduct and one line of thought. The Terapanthis are considered reformists as they emphasize simplicity in religion. For example, the Terapanthis do not even construct monasteries for their monks, who inhabit a part of the house which the householders build for themselves. Recently their religious head, Acharya Tulasi, had started the Anuvrata Andolana, that is, the small vow movement. which attempts to utilize the spiritual doctrines of the Jainas for moral uplift of the masses in India.
The rise of Terapantha is the last big schism in the Svetambara sect and this Pantha is becoming popular. The Terapanthis are still limited in number and even though they are noticed in different cities in India, they are concentrated mainly in Bikaner, Jodhpur and Mewar areas of Rajasthan.

The Digambar Sub-Sects

The division of the Jaina religion into two sects was only the beginning of splitting the religious order into various sub-sects. Each of the two great sects, viz., the Digambara sect and the Svetambara sect, got sub-divided into different major and minor sub-sects according to the differences in acknowledging or interpreting the religious texts and in the observance of religious practices. These major and minor sub-sets gradually sprang up for the most part on account of different interpretations the pontiffs put on the canonical texts from time to time and due to revolt or opposition by sections of people against the established religious authorities and the traditional religious rites and rituals.
The Digambara sect, in recent centuries, has been divided into the following sub-sects:

Major sub-sects -

1. Bisapantha,
2. Terapantha, and
3. Taranapantha or Samaiyapantha.

Minor sub-sects:

1. Gumanapantha
2. Totapantha.

Bisapantha

The followers of Bisapantha support the Dharma-gurus, that is, religious authorities known as Bhattarakas who are also the heads of Jaina Mathas, that is. religious monasteries. The Bisapanthas, in their temples, worship the idols of Tirthankaras and also the idols of Ksetrapala, Padmavati and other deities. They worship these idols with saffron, flowers, fruits, sweets, scented 'agarabattis', i.e., incense sticks, etc. While performing these worships. the Bisapanthis sit on the ground and do not stand. They perform Arati, i.e., waving of lights over the idol, in the temple even at night and distribute prasada, i.e., sweet things offered to the idols. The Bisapantha, according to some, is the original form of the Digambara sect and today practically all Digambara Jainas from Maharashtra, Karnataka and South India and a large number of Digambara Jainas from Rajasthan and Gujarat are the followers of Bisapantha.

Terapantha

Terapantha arose in North India in the year 1683 of the Vikram Era as a revolt against the domination and conduct of the Bhattarakas. i.e. religious authorities, of the Digambara Jainas. As a result in this sub-sect. the Bhattarakas are not much respected. In their temples, the Terapanthis install the idols of Tirthankaras and not of Ksetrapala, Padmavati and other deities. Further. they worship the idols not with flowers, fruits and other green vegetables (known as sachitta things), but with sacred rice called 'Aksata', cloves, sandal, almonds, dry coconuts, dates, etc. As a rule they do not perform Arah or distribute Prasada in their temples. Again, while worshipping they stand and do not sit.
From these differences with the Bisapanthis it is clear that the Terapanthis appear to be reformers. They are opposed to various religious practices. As according to them. These are not real Jaina practices. The Terapantha had performed a valuable task of rescuing the Digambaras from the clutches of wayward Bhattarakas and hence the Terapanthis occupy a peculiar position in the Digambara Jaina community. The Terapanthis are more numerous in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
It is pertinent to note that even though the name Terapantha sub-sect appears both among the Digambara and the Svetambara sects. Still the two Terapanthis are entirely different from each other. While the Digambara Terapanthis believe in nudity and idol-worship, the Svetambara Terapanthis are quite opposed to both.

Taranapantha

The sub-sect Taranapantha is known after its founder Tarana-Svami or Tarana-tarana-Svami (1448-1515 A.D.). This sub-sect is also called Samaiyapantha because its followers worship Sarnaya, i.e., sacred books and not the idols. Tarana-Svami died at Malharagarh, in former Gwalior State in Madhya Pradesh, and this is the central place of pilgrimage of Taranapanthis.
The Taranapanthis strongly refute idolatry but they have their own temples in which they keep their sacred books for worship. They do not offer articles like fruits and flowers at the time of worship. Besides the sacred books of the Digambaras, they also worship the fourteen sacred books written by their founder Tarana-Svami. Further, Taranapanthis give more importance to spiritual values and the study of sacred literature. That is why we find a complete absence of outward religious practices among them. Moreover, Tarana-Svami; was firmly against the caste-distinctions and in fact threw open the doors of his sub-sect even to Muslims and low-caste people.
These three main traits of the Taranapanthis, namely, (a) the aversion to idol worship, (b) the absence of outward religious practices, and (c) the ban on caste distinctions, were evolved as a revolt against the religious beliefs and practices prevailing in the Digambara Jaina sect, and it appears that Tarana-Svami might have formulated these principles under the direct influence of Islamic doctrines and the teachings of Lonkashaha, the founder of the non-idolatrous Sthanakvasi sub-sect of the Svetambara sect.
The Taranapanthis are few in number and they are mostly confined to Bundelkhand, Malwa area of Madhya Pradesh and Khandesh area of Maharashtra.

Gumanapantha

The Gumanapantha is not so important and in fact very little is known about it. It is stated that this sub-sect was started by Pandit Gumani Rama or Gumani Rai, who was a son of Pandit Todaramal, a resident of Jaipur in Rajasthan.
According to this Pantha, lighting of candles or lamps in the Jaina temples is strictly prohibited, because it regards this as a violation of the fundamental doctrine of Jaina religion, viz., non-violence. They only visit and view the image in the temples and do not make any offerings to them.
This pantha became famous in the name of shuddha amnaya, that is pure or sacred tradition, because its followers always stressed the purity of conduct and self-discipline and strict adherence to the precepts.
Gumanapantha originated in the 18th. Century A.D. and flourished mainly during that century. It was prevalent in several parts of Rajasthan, and it is found now in some areas of Rajasthan around Jaipur.

Totapantha

The Totapantha came into existence as a result of differences between the Bisapantha and Terapantha sub-sects. Many sincere efforts were made to strike a compromise between the Bisa (i.e. twenty) Pantha and the Tera (i.e.. thirteen) pantha and the outcome was sadhesolaha (i.e., sixteen and a half)-Pantha or 'Totapantha'. That is why the followers of Sadheso!aha Pantha or Totapantha believe to some extent in the doctrines of Bisapantha and to some extent in those of Terapantha.
The Totapanthis are extremely few in number and are found in some pockets in Madhya Pradesh.
In connection with the account of the major and minor sub-sects prevailing among the Digambara sect, it is worth while to note that in recent years in the Digambara sect a new major sub-sect known as 'Kanji-pantha', consisting of the followers of Kanji Swami is being formed and is getting popular especially among the educated sections. Saint Kanji; Swami (from whom the name ‘Kanji-pantha' is derived), a ‘Svetambara-Sthanakvasi’ by birth, largely succeeded in popularizing the old sacred texts of the great Digambara Jaina saint Acharya Kunda-Kunda of South India. But Kanji Swami’s efforts, while interpreting Acharya Kunda kunda's writings, to give more prominence to nischaya-naya, that is, realistic point of view, in preference to vyavahara-naya, that is, practical view point, are not approved by the Digambaras in general as they consider that both the view points are of equal importance. However, the influence of Kanjipantha is steadily increasing and Sonagarh town in Gujarat and Jaipur in Rajasthan have become the centers of varied religious activities of the Kanajipanthis.

The Digambar And Svetambara Sects

It is worthwhile to see what the exact differences between the Digambara and Svetambara sects of Jainism are. Literally, the monks of the Digambaras are naked while those of the Svetambaras wear white clothes. In fact there are no fundamental doctrinal differences between the two sects. For example, the most authoritative sacred text of all Jainas is the Tattvarthadhigama-sutra by Umasvati. However, there are some major as well as minor points on which the two sects are opposed to each other.

Some Points of differences

Some of the points of differences between the Digambaras and Svetambaras are as follows:

Practice of Nudity

Digambaras stress the practice of nudity as an absolute pre-requisite to the mendicant's path and to the attainment of salvation. But the Svetambaras assert that the practice of complete nudity is not essential to attain liberation.
Liberation of Woman
Digambaras believe that a woman lacks the adamantine body and rigid will necessary to attain moksa, i.e., liberation: hence she must be reborn as a man before such an attainment is possible. But the Svetambaras hold the contrary view and maintain that women are capable in the present life time, of the same spiritual accomplishments as men.
Food for Omniscient
According to the Digambaras, once a saint becomes a kevali or Kevala-jnani, that is, omniscient, he needs no morsel of food. But this view is not acceptable to the Svetambaras.
Minor points of Differences
Leaving aside the trivial differences in rituals, customs and manners, the following are some of the minor points on which the two sects of Digambaras and Svetambaras do not agree:
Embryo of Mahavira
The Svetambaras believe that Mahavira was born of a Ksatriya lady, Trisala, though conception took place in the womb of a Brahman lady, Devananda. The change of embryo is believed to have been effected by God Indra on the eighty-third day after conception. The Digambaras, however, dismiss the whole episode as unreliable and absurd.
Marriage of Mahavira
The Svetambaras believe that Mahavira married Princess Yasoda at a fairly young age and had a daughter from her by name Anojja or Priyadarsana and that Mahavira led a full-fledged householder's life till he was thirty, when he became an ascetic. But the Digambaras deny this assertion altogether.
Tirthankara Mallinatha
The Svetambaras consider Mallinatha, the 19th Tirthankar as a female by name Mall; but the Digambaras state that Mallinatha was a male.
Idols of Tirthankars
The Svetambara tradition depicts the idols of Tirthankars as wearing a loin-cloth, bedecked with jewels and with glass eyes inserted in the marble. But the Digambara tradition represents the idols of Tirthankars as nude. Unadorned and with downcast eyes in the contemplative mood.
Canonical Literature
The Svetambaras believe in the validity and sacredness of canonical literature, that is, the twelve angas and sutras, as they exist now. While the Digambaras hold that the original and genuine texts were lost long ago. The Digambaras also refuse to accept the achievements of the first council which met under the leadership of Acharya Sthulabhadra and consequently the recasting of the angas.
Charitras and Puranas
The Svetambaras use the term 'Charitra' and the Digambaras make use of the term 'Purana' for the biographies of great teachers.
Food of Ascetics
The Svetambara monks collect their food from different houses while the Digambara monks take food standing and with the help of knotted upturned palms and in one house only where their sankalpa (preconceived idea) is fulfilled.
Dress of Ascetics
The Svetambara monks wear white clothes. but the Digambara monks of the ideal nirgrantha type are naked.
Possessions of Ascetics
The Svetambara ascetic is allowed to have fourteen possessions including loin-cloth, shoulder-cloth, etc. But the Digambara ascetic is allowed only two possessions (viz., a the pichhi, a peacock-feather whisk-broom) and a kamandalu (a wooden water-pot).

The Great schism Of Jainism

The history of Jaina religion is full of references to the various schisms that had taken place from time to time, and some of these schisms contributed to the rise of sects and sub-sects in Jaina religion. There is, however, no unity of opinion on the manner and nature of such schisms. It is maintained that there were eight schisms, of which the first was caused by Jamali during Tirthankara Mahavira's lifetime, and the eighth took place during the first century of the Christian Era, that is after the lapse of nearly six hundred years after the nirvana of Tirthankara Mahavira. Among these schisms, the eighth schism was more important as it ultimately split the Jaina religion into two distinct sects of Digambara Jainas and Svetambara Jainas. In this connection it may be noted that in order to prove the antiquity of their particular sect, both the sects have put forward their own theories regarding the origin of the other sect.

According to the account of the eighth schism, known as the great schism, which is corroborated by historical evidence, the process of the split continued from the third century B.C. up to the first century of the Christian Era. In the third century B.C. famous Jaina saint Srutakevali Bhadrabahu predicted a long and severe famine in the kingdom of Magadha (in modern Bihar and with a view to avoid the terrible effects of famine Bhadrabahu, along with a body of 12,000 monks, migrated from Pataliputra, the capital of Magadha, to Shravanabelagola (in modern Karnataka State) in South India. Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 B.C.). who was then the Emperor of Magadha and was very much devoted to Acharya Bhadrabahu, abdicated his throne in favor of his son Bindusara, joined Bhadrabahu’s entourage as a monk-disciple, and stayed with Bhadrabahu at Shravanabelagola. Chandragupta, the devout ascetic disciple of Bhardrabahu, lived for 12 years after the death of his teacher Bhadrabahu, in about 297 B.C. and after practicing penance died according to the strict Jaina rite of Sallekhana on the same hill at Shravanabelagola. This Bhadrabahu Chandragupta tradition is strongly supported by a large number of epigraphic and literary evidences of a very reliable nature.
When the ascetics of Bhadrabahu-sangha returned to Pataliputra after the end of twelve-year period of famine, they, to their utter surprise, noticed two significant changes that had taken place during their absence, among the ascetics of Magadha under the leadership of Acharya Sthulabhadra. In the first place, the rule of nudity was relaxed and the ascetics were allowed to wear a piece of white cloth (known as Ardhaphalaka). Secondly, the sacred books were collected and edited at the council of Pataliputra specially convened for the purpose. As a result the group of returned monks did not accept the two things, introduced by the followers of Acharya Sthulabhadra, namely, the relaxation of the rule of nudity and the recension of the sacred texts, and proclaimed themselves as true Jainas. Eventually, the Jaina religion was split up into two distinct sects, viz., the Digambara (sky-clad or stark naked) and the Svetambara (white-clad).
In connection with this Great Schism it is pertinent to note that the practice of nudity, strictly observed by Tirthankar Mahavira and the ascetic members of his sangha, was later on found impracticable and discarded gradually by some sections of the Ascetic Order of the Jainas. That is why Dr. Herman Jacobi, the pioneer of Jaina studies in Germany, has made the following observation:
"It is possible that the separation of the Jaina Church took place gradually, an individual development going on in both the groups living at a great distance from one another, and that they became aware of their mutual difference about the end of the first century A.D. But their difference is small in their articles of faith."
In this regard Dr. A.L. Basham, the renowned authority on Oriental Studies, has given his positive opinion as follows: "Out of this migration arose the great schism of Jainism on a point of monastic discipline. Bhadrabahu, the elder of the community, who had led the emigrants, had insisted on the retention of the rule of nudity, which Mahavira had established. Sthulabhadra, the leader of monks who had remained in the North, allowed his followers to wear white garments, owing to the hardships and confusions of the famine. Hence arose the two sects of Jainas, the Digambaras and the Svetambaras. The schism did not become final until the first century A.D."
(vied "The Wonder that was India", pp. 288-89).
Further it is worth noting that in the beginning when the schism materialized, the differences between the two sects were not acute and did not take the form of a dogmatic and doctrinaire rigidity as is clear from the fact that the Jainas by and large agreed that nakedness was the highest ideal as it is the characteristic of a Jina. Accordingly, they adored the nude images of Tirthankaras without any reservation. In this context it is pertinent to note that all the early images of Tirthankars found at Mathura in Uttar Pradesh are nude. But slowly the question of clothing became important and accordingly different views and approaches were put forward in regard to various aspects and practices of the religious life. As a result with the passage of time and changed conditions, attitudes and approaches began to stiffen, doctrines to ossify and the sectarian outlook to dominate. This phenomenon is found among the other religious sects of that time. Naturally, it affected the Jaina religion also.

Rise Of Sections In Jainism

From the history of Jaina religion up to Mahavira it appears that sects and sub-sets had not arisen till that time. But later on we find that various schisms arose in Jaina religion as a result of which Jainism was divided into several sects and sub-sects. There were various reasons which contributed to the splitting of Jainism in small sects and sub-sects.

Increase in the extent of Jainism
In the first place it may be mentioned that during the lifetime of Mahavira the spread of Jainism was limited and it did not seem generally to have crossed the boundaries of kingdoms of Anga and Magadha, comprising modern Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal, where Mahavira mainly lived and concentrated his attention; but after the death of Mahavira, his successors and followers succeeded to a large extent in popularizing the religion throughout the length and breadth of India, so that it did not fail to enlist for a long period the support of kings as well as commoners. As the number of adherents to Jaina religion fast increased and as they were scattered practically in all parts of the country, the Ganadharas, that is, the religious leaders and the religious pontiffs must have found it very difficult to look after and organize their followers. Naturally, different conditions. customs, manners and ways of life prevailing in different parts of the country in different periods of time might have influenced in giving rise to various religious practices which might have ultimately resulted in creating factions among the followers of Jainism.

Interpretation of Jaina Canons
Secondly, the religious doctrines, principles and tenets of Jainism as they were enunciated and taught by 
Mahavira were not committed to writing during the lifetime of Mahavira or immediately after his death. The important fact was that the religious teachings of Mahavira were memorized by his immediate successors and they were thus handed down by one generation to another, till they were canonized at the council of Pataliputra in the early part of the 3rd century B.C. By this time much water had flown down the Ganges and what was canonized was not acceptable to all, who vigorously maintained that the canon did not contain the actual teachings of Mahavira.
Again. there was the question of interpreting what had been canonized. As time passed on, differences of opinion regarding the interpretation of many doctrines arose and those who differed established a separate school of thought and formed themselves into a sect or sub-sect.

Revolt against Jaina's Religious Authorities
Thirdly, it may be maintained that sects and sub-sects arise as a direct result of the revolts against the actions and policy of ruling priests or religious authorities including the heads of the Church. Those who are at the helm of religious affairs are likely to swerve from their prescribed path and debase themselves or they are likely to be too strict in maintaining and preserving the religious practices in a manner they think proper, without taking into account the needs of the changing conditions. In both the cases natural indignation is bound to occur on the part of the elite and there should not be any surprise if this accumulated indignation and discontent took a turn in formulating and organizing a separate sect. For example, Martin Luther revolted against the high-handed policy of Popes and Priests in Christian religion and founded the section of Protestants in that religion. Generally, the same thing happened in Jaina religion also.
As a result of these factors the Jaina religion which was one and undivided up to the time of Tirthankara Mahavira and even up to the beginning of the Christian Era got divided first into the two major sects, viz., Digambara and Svetambara, and later on into many sub-sects in each sect. This has given rise to a number of sections and sub-sections in Jainism and the process, in one form or another, is still going on.

Importance Assigned To Five Vratas

The second distinguishing feature of the ethical code prescribed for the Jainas is the importance assigned to the five main vratas or vows in the life not only of an ascetic but also of a householder. The five main vows of ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya and aparigraha form the basis on which the superstructure of Jaina ethics has been raised. They give a definite outlook on life and create a particular type of mental attitude. The very essence of Jaina philosophy is transformed into action in the shape of observance of these five vows.
Though these vows on their face appear to be mere abstentions from injury, falsehood, theft, unchastity and worldly attachments. their implications are really extensive and they permeate the entire social life of the community. This is because it has been enjoined that these five faults should be avoided in three ways termed as (a) krta, that is, a person should not commit any fault himself; (b) karita, that is, a person should not incite others to commit such an act; and (c) anumodita, that is, a person should not even approve of it subsequent to its commission by others.

In view of this extension of the field of avoidance of five faults, we find that detailed rules of conduct have been laid down for observance in the matter of abstentions from these faults in the following way:

1. Himsa
2. Himsa or injury has been defined as hurting of the vitalities caused through want of proper care and caution. But the meaning is not limited to this definition alone. It is stated that piercing, binding, causing pain, overloading and starving or not feeding at proper times, are also forms of himsa and as such these forms must be avoided.
3. Asatya
4. Asatya, i.e., falsehood, in simple terms, is to speak hurtful words. But the meaning is further extended, and spreading false doctrines, revealing the secrets and deformities of others, backbiting, making false documents, and breach of trust are also considered as forms of falsehood, and therefore, these should be abstained from.
5. Chaurya
6. Chaurya, i.e., theft, is to take anything which is not given. But a wide meaning is attached to the term theft. That is why imparting instruction on the method of committing theft, receiving stolen property, evading the injunction of the law (by selling things at inordinate prices), adulteration, and keeping false weights and measures, are all considered as forms of theft and one must guard oneself against them.
7. Abrahma
8. Abrahma, i.e., unchastity, is also considered to have several forms. As a result, matchmaking (bringing about marriages, as a hobby), unnatural gratification, indulging in voluptuous speech, visiting immoral married women, and visiting immoral unmarried women are all forms of unchastity, and they should be avoided.
9. Parigraha   

 The fault of Parigraha, i.e., worldly attachments, consists in desiring more than what is needed by an individual. Hence accumulating even necessary articles in large numbers, expressing wonder at the prosperity of another, excessive greed, transgressing the limits of possession, and changing the proportions of existing possessions are all forms of parigraha, and therefore these should be discarded.
It may be noted that the last vow of aparigraha or parigraha-parimana is very distinctive as it indirectly aims at economic equalization by peaceful prevention of undue accumulation of capital in individual hands. Further, in this vow it is recommended that a householder should fix, beforehand, the limit of his maximum belongings, and should, in no case, exceed it. If he ever happens to earn more than that limit, it is also recommended that he must spend it away in charities, the best and recognized forms of which are four viz., distribution of medicine, spread of knowledge, provision for saving lives of people in danger, and feeding the hungry and the poor.
Obviously these five vows are of a great social value as they accord a religious sanction to some of the most important public and private interests and rights which are, in modern times, safeguarded by the laws of the state. It has been specifically pointed out by Jaina scholars that a due observance of the vows would save a man from application of almost any of the sections of the Indian Penal Code.

Tattvas Of Jainism

The seven tattvas, i.e., principles of Jainism mentioned above are explained in Jaina religion as follows:

Jiva

The Jiva means atman, i.e., soul or spirit. The Jiva is essentially an undivided base of consciousness and there is an infinity of them. The whole world is literally filled with them. The souls are substances and as such they are eternal. Their characteristic mark is consciousness, which can never be destroyed. Basically the soul is all perfect and all powerful. But by ignorance soul identifies itself with matter and hence all its troubles and degradation start.

Kinds of souls

The souls are of two kinds, viz.,
samsarin, i.e., mundane, or baddha, i.e., those in bondage, and
siddha, i.e., liberated, or mukta, i.e., those that are free.
Mundane souls are the embodied souls of living beings in the world and are still subject to the cycle of births. On the other hand, siddha jivas are the liberated souls and they will be embodied no more.

Liberated souls

The liberated souls without any embodiment dwell in the state of perfection at the top of the universe. So to say, they have no more to do with worldly affairs as they have reached Nirvana or Mukti, i.e., complete emancipation. The liberated souls in their pure condition possess four attributes known as ananta-chatustaya, i.e., infinite quaternary, viz.,

1. ananta-darsana, i.e., infinite perception
2. ananta-jnana, i.e., infinite knowledge,
3. ananta-virya, i.e., infinite power, and
4. ananta-sukha, i.e., infinite bliss.

Thus the most significant difference between the mundane and the liberated souls consists in the fact that the former is permeated with subtle matter known as karma; while the latter is absolutely pure and free from any material alloy.

Mundane souls

The mundane or embodied souls are living beings, the classification of which is a subject not only of theoretical but also of great practical interest to the Jainas. As their highest duty is not to injure any living beings, it becomes incumbent on them to know the various forms which life may assume.
The mundane souls are of two kinds, viz., (i) samanaska, i.e., those who have a mind ( the faculty of distinguishing right or wrong), and (ii) amanaska, i.e., those who have no mind.further, the mundane souls are also classified into two kinds from another point of view: (a) sthavara, i.e., the immobile or the one sensed souls, that is, having only the sense of touch; and (b) trasa, i.e., the mobile or, having a body with more than one sense organ.
Again, mobile souls are those which, being in fear, have the capacity of moving away from the object of fear. But immobile souls do not have this capacity.

One-sensed souls

The immobile or one-sensed souls are of five kinds, viz.,

1. prthvi-kaya, i.e., earth-bodied,
2. ap-kaya, i.e., water bodied,
3. tejah-kaya, i.e., fire-bodied,
4. vayu-kaya, i.e., air bodied, and
5. vanaspati-kaya, i.e., vegetable-bodied.

The Jaina believe that 'nearly everything is possessed of a soul' has been characterized as animistic and hylozoistic by some scholars and therefore they regarded Jainism as a very primitive religion. But a careful study of Jaina scriptures shows that Jainism cannot be termed as animistic faith because Jainism makes a clear distinction between soul and non-soul. It cannot be labeled as animism in the sense that `everything is possessed of a soul'.

Many-sensed souls

There are in all five senses of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing and therefore the mobile or many-sensed souls are classified accordingly into four classes, viz.,

1. dvi-indriya jivas, i.e., those souls which have first two senses of touch and taste, for example, worms, etc.,
2. tri-indriya jivas, i.e., those souls which have first three senses of touch, taste and smell, for example, ants, etc.,
3. chatur-indriya jivas, i.e., those souls which have first four senses of touch, taste, smell and sight, for example, bumble bee, etc., and
4. pancha-indriya jivas, i.e., those souls which have all the five senses of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing, for example, human begins etc.

Thus we find that in each class there is one sense organ more than those of the one preceding it.

Grades of mundane souls

From another point of view mundane beings are divided into four grades according to the place where they are born or their condition of existence. The forms of existence or gatis are of four kinds, viz., (i) naraka-gati, that is, hellish form, (ii) tiryag-gati, that is, sub-human form, (iii) manusya-gati, that is, human form, and (iv) deva-gati, that is, celestial form.
It is asserted that mundane beings are born in these four gatis according to their punya-karmas, i.e., merits or papa- karmas i.e., demerits. Jainism further believes that for moksa, i.e., complete salvation, birth in the human form is essential and that those in other forms or gatis will attain salvation only after taking birth in manusya-gati, i.e., human form.

Characteristics of mundane souls

The mundane souls are always in the impure state, and in this state their features are described in the classical text Dravya-sangraha in the Prakrit language :
Jivo uvaogamao amutti katta sadehaparimano
Bhotta samsarattho siddho so vissasoddhagai

1. Jiva : It lived in the past, is living now and shall live for ever.
2. Upayogamaya : It has perception and knowledge.
3. Amurti : It is formless, that is, it has no touch, taste, smell or color.
4. Kartr : It is the only responsible agent of all its actions.
5. Svadeha-parimana : It fills the body which it occupies, for example, that of an ant or an elephant.
6. Bhoktr : It enjoys the fruits of its karmas.
7. Samsarastha : It wanders in Samsara.
8. Siddha : It can become in its perfect condition, siddha.
9. Urdhvagati : It has the tendency to go upwards.

Ajiva

As we have seen Jaina philosophy starts with a perfect division of the universe into living and non-living substances, jiva and ajiva. The ajiva, i.e., non-living or non-soul substances are of five kinds, namely,

1. pudgala, i.e., matter,
2. dharma i.e., medium of motion,
3. adharma, i.e., medium of rest,
4. akasa, i.e., space, and
5. kala, i.e., time.

These six substances are called dravyas, i.e., elementary substances, in Jaina philosophy. It should be noted that the terms dharma and adharma have a special significance other than usual meaning of punya and papa, i.e., merit and demerit.
A dravya has got three characteristics as follows :

1. first, dravya has the quality of existence,
2. secondly, dravya has the quality of permanence through origination and destruction, and
3. thirdly, dravya is the substratum of attributes and modes.

Thus the drvya is uncreated and indestructible, its essential qualities remain the same and it is only its paryaya or mode of condition, that can and does change.

Pudgala

Whatever is perceived by the senses, the sense organs themselves, the various kinds of bodies of Jivas, the mind, the karmas, and the other material objects-all of these are known as pudgala or matter.
Dharma
Dharma is the principle of motion, the accompanying circumstance or cause which makes motion possible. Just as water itself, being indifferent or neutral, is the condition of movement of fishes, so dharma, itself non-motive, is the sine qua non of motion of jivas and pudgalas. Hence dharma is coterminus with the universe, and is one substance unlike jiva and pudgala which are infinite in number.

Adharma

Adharma or the principle of rest has all the characteristics associated with dharma. But it is like the earth the sine qua non of rest for things in motion.
Akasa
What contains or accommodates completely all jivas and pudgalas and the remaining dravya in the universe is termed as akasa or space. It is very pertinent to note that in Jaina philosophy the term akasa means space and not ether as it is very often interpreted in other systems of Indian philosophy.

Kala

That which is the cause or circumstance of the modification of the soul and other dravyas is kala, that is, time. It is immaterial and it has the peculiar attribute of helping the modification of other substances.
It is thus clear that dharma, adharma and akasa are each a single dravya, whereas jiva, pudgala and kala are held to be manifold dravyas.
Further, it must be remembered that the doctrines of Jainism firmly emphasize that these six jiva and ajiva dravyas, i.e., living and non-living substances, are externally existing, uncreated and with no beginning in the time. As substances they are eternal and unchanging but their modifications are passing through a flux of changes. Their mutual cooperation and interaction explain all that we imply by the term `creation'. hence the doctrines of Jainism do not admit of any `Creator' of this universe.

Asrava

The third principle asrava signifies the influx of karmic matter into the constitution of the soul. Combination of karmic matter with jiva or soul is due to the activity of mind, speech or body. In other words, Yoga is the name of a faculty of the soul itself, to attract matter under the influence of past karmas. Hence in the embodied state this faculty comes into play.
Thus Yoga is the channel of asrava. The physical matter which is actually drawn to the soul cannot be perceived by the senses as it is very fine.
Further, asrava is of two kinds, viz., (a) subha asrava, i.e., good influx, and (b) asubha asrava, i.e., bad influx.
The subha asrava is the inlet of virtue or meritorious karmas, and asubha asrava is the inlet of vice or demeritorious karmas.

Bandha

When the karmic matter enters the soul, both get imperceptibly mixed with each other. Bandha or bondage is the assimilation of matter which is fit to form karmas by the soul as it is associated with passions. This union of spirit and matter does not imply a complete annihilation of their natural properties, but only a suspension of their functions, in varying degrees, according to the fusion of the spirit and matter is manifested in the form of a compound personality which partakes of the nature of both, without actually destroying either.
The causes of bandha or bondage are five, viz.,

1. mithya-darsana, i.e., wrong belief or faith, or wrong perception,
2. avirati, i.e., vowlessness or non- renunciation,
3. pramada, i.e., carelessness,
4. kasaya, i.e., passions, and
5. yoga, i.e., vibration in the soul through mind, speech and body.

Further, this bandha or bondage is of four kinds according to (i) prakrti, i.e., nature of karmic matter which has invested the soul; (ii) sthiti, i.e., duration of the attachment of karmic matter to the soul; (iii) anubhaga, i.e., the intensity or the character-strong or mild - of the actual fruition of the karmic matter, and (iv) pradesa, i.e., the number of karmic molecules which attach to the soul.

Samvara

Effective states of desire and aversion, and activity of thought, speech or body are the conditions that attract karmas, good and bad, towards the soul. When these conditions are removed, there will be no karmas approaching the jiva, that is complete samvara - a sort of protective wall shutting out all the karmas is established round the self. This samvara is described as Asrava-nirodhah samvarah, that is, samvara is the stoppage of inflow of karmic matter into the soul.
There are several ways through which this stoppage could be effected and further inflow of karmic matter into the soul could be checked.

Nirjara

Nirjara means the falling away of karmic matter from the soul. It is obvious that the soul will be rendered free by the automatic shedding of the karmas when they become ripe. But this falling away of karmas is by itself a lengthy process. Hence with a view to shorten this process, it is asserted that the falling away of karmic matter from the soul can be deliberately brought through the practice of austerities.
This nirjara is of two kinds : (i) Savipaka nirjara: It is the natural maturing of a karma and its separation from the soul, and (ii) Avipaka nirjara : It is inducing a karma to leave the soul, before it gets ripened, by means of ascetic practices. In this way, in the savipaka nirjara the soul, in the maturity of time, is rid of the karmas by their operating and falling off from it; and in the avipaka nirjara, the karmas, which had not yet matured to operate, are induced to fall off from the soul.

Moksa

Moksa is described as
Bandhahetvabhavanirjarabhyam krtsnakarmavipramokso moksah,
that is, moksa or liberation is the freedom from all karmic matter, owing to the non-existence of the cause of bondage and shedding of all the karmas. Thus complete freedom of the soul from karmic matter is called moksa.
This condition is obtained when the soul and matter are separated from each other. Complete separation is effected when all the karmas have left the soul, and no more karmic matter can be attracted towards it.

Philosophy Of Jainism

With a view to achieve emancipation of soul from the bondage of karmas man has to acquire the knowledge of the beatific condition and of the causes which stand in the way of its attainment. To find out these causes it is necessary to understand the nature of reality as it exists, sat is the concept the explains the nature of reality.
Jainism believes that sat, i.e., the reality, is uncreated and eternal and further asserts that sat, i.e., the reality, is characterized by : utpada, i.e., origination or appearance, vyaya, i.e., destruction or disappearance, and dhrauvya, i.e., permanence. Jainism categorically states that every object of reality is found possessed of infinite characters, both with respect to what it is and what it is not. In other words, according to Jainism every object of reality has its paryayas, i.e., modes, and gunas, i.e., qualities, through which persist the essential substrata through all the times. That is why it is asserted that the basic substance with its gunas, i.e., qualities, is something that is permanent, and that is permanent, and disappear. Thus both change and permanence are facts of experience. For example, the soul or spirit is eternal with its inseparable character of consciousness, but at the same time it is subjected to accidental characters like pleasure and pain and superimposed modes such as body, etc., both of which are changing constantly. For instance, gold with its color and density is something that is permanent though it is subjected to different shapes at different times.
Jainism believes that in this world dravyas, i.e., the substances, are real as they are characterized by existence. Jainism also believes that the entire substances of the universe can be broadly divided into two major categories, viz., jiva i.e., living, or soul and ajiva, i.e., non-living, or non-soul. These two categories exhaust between them all that exists in the universe. Jaina philosophy is based on the nature and interaction of these two elements. It is this interaction between the living and the non-living, when they come into contact with each other, that certain energies generate which bring about birth, death and various experiences of life. This process can be stopped, and the energies already forged can be destroyed by a course of discipline leading to salvation.

A close analysis of this brief statement about Jaina philosophy shows that it involves the following seven propositions:

1. that there is something, called living;
2. that there is something, called non-living;
3. that the two come into contact with each other;
4. that the contact leads to the production of some energies;
5. that the process of contact could be stopped;
6. that the existing energies could also be exhausted; and
7. that the salvation could be achieved.

These seven proposition imply the seven tattvas or principles of Jaina philosophy. These tattvas are termed as follows:

1. jiva, i.e., living substance,
2. ajiva, i.e., non-living substance,
3. asrava, i.e., the influx of karmic matter into the soul,
4. bandha, i.e., bondage of soul by karmic-matter,
5. samvara, i.e., the stopping of asrava, the influx,
6. nirjara, i.e., the gradual removal of karmic matter, and
7. moksa, i.e., the attainment of perfect freedom from the karmas.

It is clear that the first two tattvas deal with the nature and enumeration of the eternal substances of nature, and the remaining five tattvas are concerned with the interaction between and separation of these two eternal substances, viz., jiva and ajiva, i.e., spirit and matter. In Jaina religion much importance has been given to these seven tattvas as every soul would be aspirant for moksa, i.e., salvation. To achieve the ultimate goal a person has to understand the nature of these tattvas. These seven tattvas point to two groups of substance. Hence the really sentient object is the soul.
A recognition of these two entities - soul and non-soul - at once marks out the Jaina philosophy as dualistic and quite distinguishable from the monistic Vedanta philosophy which accepts only one reality without a second.
In view of this distinguishing feature of Jainism it is necessary to have a proper conception of these seven tattvas of Jaina philosophy.

Fundamental Principles Of Jainism

The fundamental principles of Jainism can be briefly stated as follows.
Man's personality is dual

The first fundamental principle of Jainism is that man's personality is dual, that is, material and spiritual. Jaina philosophy regards that every mundane soul is bound by subtle particles of matter known as karma from the very beginning. It considers that just as gold is found in an alloyed form in the mines, in the same way mundane souls are found in the bondage of karma, from times immemorial. The impurity of the mundane soul is thus treated as an existing condition.

Man is not perfect

The second principle that man is not perfect is based on the first principle. The imperfectness in man is attributed to the existence of karma embodied with soul. The human soul is in a position to obtain perfection and in that free and eternal state it is endowed with four characteristics, viz., ananta-darsana, ananta-jnana, ananta-virya and ananta-sukha, i.e. infinite perception or faith, infinite knowledge, infinite power and infinite bliss.

Man is the master of his material nature

Even though man is not perfect, the third principle states that by his spiritual efforts man can and must control his material nature. It is only after the entire subjugation of matter that the soul attains perfection, freedom and happiness. It is emphatically maintained that man will be able to sail across the ocean of births and achieve perfection through the control of senses and thought processes.

Man alone is responsible for his future

The last basic principle stresses that is only each individual that can scientifically separate his own soul from the matter combined with it. The separation cannot be effected by any other person. This means that man himself, and he alone, is responsible for all that is good or bad in his life. He cannot absolve himself from the responsibility of experiencing the fruits of his actions.
It is pertinent to note that this principle distinguishes Jainism from other religions, e.g., Christianity, Islam and Hinduism. According to Jainism no God, nor his prophet or deputy or beloved can interfere with the destiny of any being, with creation of the universe or with any happening in the universe. Jainism also stresses that the universe goes on of its own accord.
In view of this specific attitude towards God, Jainism is accused of being atheistic. This accusation is based on the fact that Jainism does not attribute the creation of universe to God. But at the same time it must be realized that Jainism cannot be labeled as atheistic because of the basic facts that Jainism firmly believes in Godhood, in an infinity of Gods, in punya and papa, i.e., merit and demerit, and in various religious practices, etc. Jainism believes that the emancipated soul is itself God. It is thus clear that Jainism cannot, in general, be considered as an atheistic religion.

Jain Tradition And Hindusism

The Jaina tradition of 24 Tirthankaras seems to have been accepted by the Hindus like the Buddhists, as could be seen from their ancient scriptures. The Hindus, indeed, never disputed the fact that Jainism was founded by Rsabhadeva and placed his time almost at what they conceived to be the commencement of the world. They acknowledged him as a divine person. They gave the same parentage (father Nabhiraya and mother Marudevi) of Rsabhadeva as the Jainas do and they even agree that after the name of Rsabhadeva's eldest son Bharata this country is Known as Bharatavarsa.
In connection with the question of derivation of the name Bharatavarsa, it is pertinent to note that as many as three Bharatas had been prominent in ancient India. In Ramayana, there is one prince Bharata, the younger brother of famous king Ramchandra, but considering his limited role, it is nowhere mentioned that after him this country is known as Bharatavarsa. Similarly, another prince Bharata, the son of king Dusyanta from Sakuntala written by the celebrated poet Kalidasa. But as there have been very few references in ancient Indian literature relating to outstanding military and other achievements of this Bharata, it cannot be maintained that this country's name Bharatavarsa is derived from him. On the contrary, the well-known prince Bharata, the eldest son of the first Jaina Tirthankara Lord Rsabhanath, is most famous as Chakravarti i.e., Emperor Bharata due to his great military exploits of bringing all kingdoms in India under his rule, and that is why, India is named Bharatavarsa after him. This fact is amply borne out by Bhagavata, Markandeya, Vayu, Brahmanda, Skanda, Visnu and other Hindu puranas. For example, in the Skanda-purana (chapter 37) it is specifically stated:
Nabheh putras'-cha Rsabhah Rsabhad Bharato'bhavat
tasya namna tvidam varsam Bharatam cheti kirtyate.
That is, Rsabha was the son of Nabhi and Rsabha gave birth to son Bharata and after the name of this Bharata, this country is known Bharatavarsa.
In the Rg-veda there are clear references to Rsabha, the 1st Tirthankara, and to Aristanemi, the 22nd Tirthankara. The Yajur-veda also mentions the names of three Tirthankaras, viz. Rsabha, Ajita-natha and Aristanemi. Further, the Atharva-veda specifically mentions the sect of Vratya means the observer of vratas or vows as distinguished from the Hindus at those times. Similarly in the Atharva-veda the term Maha-vratya occurs and it is supposed that this term refers to Rsabhadeva, who could be considered as the great leader of the Vratyas.

Jain Tradition And Buddhism

As Mahavira was the senior contemporary of Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, it is natural that in the Buddhist literature there should be several references of a personal nature to Mahavira. It is, however, very significant to note that in Buddhist books Mahavira is always described as nigantha Nataputta (Nirgrantha Jnatrputra), i.e., the naked ascetic of the Jnatr clan and never as the founder of Jainism. Further, in the Buddhist literature Jainism is not shown as a new religion but is referred to as an ancient religion. There are ample references in Buddhist books to the Jaina naked ascetics to the worship of Arhats in Jaina chaityas or temples and to the chaturyama-dharma (i.e. fourfold religion) of 23rd Tirthankara Parsvanatha.
Moreover, it is very pertinent to find that the Buddhist literature refers to the Jaina tradition of Tirthankaras and specifically mentions the names of Jaina Tirthankaras like Rsabhadeva, Padmaprabha, Chandraprabha, Puspadanta, Vimalnath, Dharmanath and Neminatha. The Dharmottara- pradipa, the well known Buddhist book, Mentions Rsabhadeva along with the name of Mahavira or Vardhamana as an Apta or Tirthankara. The Dhammikasutta of the Amgutara-nikaya speaks of Aristanemi or Nemi-natha as one of the six Tirthankaras mentioned there. The Buddhist book Manorathapurani, mentions the names of many lay men and women as followers of the Parsvanatha tradition and among them is the name of Vappa, the uncle of Gautama Buddha. In fact it is mentioned in the Buddhist literature that Gautama Buddha himself practiced penance according to the Jaina way before he propounded his new religion.

Historicity Of The JainTradition

The history of the Jaina tradition is amply borne out both by literary and archaeological evidences. This traditional history of Jainism from the earliest times to the age of the last Tirthankara Mahavira (6th Century B.C.) can be consistently traced from the facts maintained by Jaina religion. In this regard, Jainism primarily assumes that the universe, with all its constituents or components, is without a beginning or an end, being everlasting and eternal and that the wheel of time incessantly revolves like a pendulum in half circles from the descending to the ascending stage and again back from the ascending stage to the descending stage. Thus, for practical purposes, a unit of the cosmic time is called kalpa, which is divided into two parts viz. the avasarpini (i.e. descending) and the utsarpini (i.e. ascending), each with six-division known as kalas i.e., periods or ages. It means that at the end of the sixth sub-division of the avasarpini(i.e. descending half circle) part the revolution reverses and the utsarpini (i.e. ascending half circle) part commences where the steps are reversed like the pendulum of a clock and that this process goes on ad infinitum. Hence the utsarpini part marks a period of gradual evolution and the avasarpini part that of gradual decline in human stature, span of life, bodily strength and happiness and even in the length of each kala or age itself (i.e., the first age being the longest and the sixth age being the shortest). Moreover, the life in the first age, the second age and the third age is known as the life of bhogabhumi (i.e., natural, happy, enjoyment-based life without any law or society); while life in the remaining three ages viz., the fourth age, the fifth age and the sixth age, is called the life of karmabhumi (i.e., life based on individual and collective efforts).
In accordance with this wheel of time, the avasarpini (the descending half circle) part is continuing at present and we are now living in this part's fifth age which commenced a few years (3 years and 3 1/2 months) after Tirthankara Mahavira's nirvana in 527 B.C. As per Jaina scriptures, the first age of the present avasarpini part was of enormous, incalculable length and it had the conditions of bhogabhumi   when human begins lived in the most primitive stage which was entirely dependent on nature. In the second age, therefore, the condition began to show some signs of gradual decline, but still they were of a happy bhogabhumi stage and in the third age, the process of degeneration continued further in spite of the prevailing bhogabhumi stage. But towards the end of the third age, man began gradually to wake up to his environments, to feel the effects of deteriorating conditions and to have desire, for the   first time, for the necessity of seeking guidance. Hence to satisfy this need, the fourth age produced, one after the other, fourteen law-givers or preliminary guides of human beings known as the Kulakaras or Manus. In the fourth age, the conditions greatly deteriorated since nature was not benevolent as   before and conflicts among men had begun to appear and the Kulakaras, in succession, as the earliest leader of men, tried to improve the conditions in their own simple ways. In the succession of fourteen Kulakaras or Manus the 14th manu by name Nabhiraya and his wife Marudevi gave birth to Rsabha or Adinatha who later on became the first Tirthankara or Expounder of Jaina religion. This Lord Rsabha is considered as the harbinger of human civilization because he inaugurated the karmabhumi (the age of action); founded the social institutions of marriage, family, law, justice, state etc. taught mankind the cultivation of land, different arts and crafts, reading, writing and arithmetic; built villages, towns and cities; and in short, pioneered the different kinds of activities with a view to provide a new kind of social order meant for increasing the welfare of human-beings. Lord Rsabha had two daughters and one hundred sons. After guiding human beings for a considerable period of time, Lord Rsabha abdicated his temporal powers in favor of his eldest son, Bharata, who in course of time, became the Chakravarti i.e., Paramount sovereign of this country; led a life of complete renunciation, got Kevala-jnana, i.e., supreme knowledge, preached the religion of ahimsa, became the first prophet of salvation and in the end attained nirvana, i.e., liberation at Mount Kailasa.
After Lord Rsabha, the first Tirthankara, there was a succession of 23 other Tirthankaras, who came one after the other at intervals varying in duration. In this way, the Jaina tradition of 24 Tirthankaras was established in the course of historical times beginning from the first Tirthankara Lord Rsabha and ending with 24th Tirthankara Lord Mahavira.
Thus it is now an accepted fact that Mahavira (599-527 B.C.) was the last Tirthankara or prophet of Jaina religion and that he preached the religion which was promulgated in the 8th century B.C. by his predecessor Parsvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara. The historicity of Tirthankara Parsvanatha (877-777 B.C.) has been established. Parsvanatha, the son of king Viavasena and queen Vamadevi of the kingdom of Kasi, led the life of an ascetic, practiced severe penance, obtained omniscience, became a Tirthankara propagated Jaina religion and attained nirvana or salvation at Sammed Shikhar, i.e., Parsvanatha as a historical personage and a preacher of Jaina religion. 

The predecessor of Parsvanatha was Nemi-natha or Aristanemi, the 22nd Tirthankara whose historicity like that of Parsvanatha, can be easily established. Nemi-natha, according to the Jaina tradition, was the cousin of the Lord Krsna of the Mahabharata fame as Samudravijaya, the father of Nemi-natha and Vasudeva, the father of Krsna, were brothers. Nemi-natha was a unique personality due to his great compassion towards animals. This is clearly revealed by a significant incident in his life. While Nemi-natha was proceeding at the head of his wedding procession to the house of his bride, Princess Rajulakumari, the daughter of king Ugrasena of Gujarat, he heard the moans and groans of animals kept in an enclosure for some meat eaters and instantly decided not to marry at all as his marriage would involve a slaughter of so many innocent animals. Immediately Nemi- natha renounced his royal title and became an ascetic. Learning this renunciation of Nemi-natha, the betrothed princess Rajulakumari or Rajamati also became a nun and entered the ascetic order. Nemi-natha after achieving omniscience preached religion for a long time and finally attained nirvana on the Mount Girnar in Junagadh district of Gujarat. Since this great war Mahabharata is a historical event and Krsna is an historical personage, his cousin brother Nemi-natha too occupies a place in this historical picture. There is also an inscriptional evidence to prove the historicity of Nemi-natha. Dr. Fuherer also declared on the basis of Mathura Jaina antiquities that Nemi-natha was a historical personage (vide Epigraphia Indica, I, 389 and II, 208-210). Further, we find Neminatha's images of the Indo-Scythian period bearing inscriptions corroborate the historicity of 22nd Tirthankara Neminatha.

Among the remaining 21 Tirthankaras of the Jaina tradition, there are several references from different sources to the first Tirthankara Rsabhanatha or Adinatha. Thus the tradition of twenty-four Tirthankaras is firmly established among the Jainas and what is really remarkable is that this finds confirmation from non-Jaina sources, especially Buddhist and Hindu sources

Tradition Of Tirthankara

As the Jinas possessed the supreme knowledge, they are called the Kevali-Jinas, i.e. the Jinas who attained the Kevala-jnana, that is, the infinite knowledge. These Kevali- Jinas are also of two kinds, viz., samanya-kevali and Tirthankara-kevali. While the samanya-kevalis are those Jinas who are mainly concerned with their own salvation, the Tirthankara-kevalis are the Jinas who after the attainment of Kevala-jnana, i.e. the infinite knowledge are not only concerned with their own salvation but are also concerned with showing the path of liberation to all. These Tirthankara-kevalis are generally known as Tirthankaras, because they are builders of the ford which leads human beings across the great ocean of existence. The term Tirthankara literally means: Tarati samsara- maharnavam yena nimittena tat Tirtham-Tirtham karoti iti Tirthankarah.
That is, the contrivance which helps us to cross the great ocean of worldly life is known as Tirtha and the person who makes the Tirtha is termed as a Tirthankara. Hence the Tirthankaras are the personages who delineate the path of final liberation or emancipation of all living beings from a succession of births and deaths.
As per Jaina tradition there were 24 such Tirthankaras, i.e. Great Guides, in the past age, there have been 24 in the present age, and there will be 24 in the future age. In this tradition the names of 24 Tirthankaras, i.e. Great Preachers, of the present age are:

1. Rsabhanath or Adinath
2. Ajitnath
3. Sambhavanath
4. Abhinandananath
5. Sumatinath
6. Padmaprabh
7. Suparsvanath
8. Chandraprabh
9. Puspadanta or Suvidhinatha
10. Sitalanath
11. Sreyamsanath
12. Vasupujya
13. Vimalanath
14. Anantanath
15. Dharmanath
16. Santinath
17. Kunthunath
18. Aranath
19. Mallinath
20. Munisuvratanath
21. Naminath
22. Neminath
23. Parsvanath
24. Mahavir, Vardhaman or Sanmati

Thus the tradition of Tirthankaras in the present age begins with Rsabha, the first Tirthankara, and ends with Mahavira, the twenty-fourth Tirthankara. Naturally, there is a continuous link among these twenty-four Tirthankaras who flourished in different periods of history in India. It, therefore, means that the religion first preached by Rsabha in the remote past was preached in succession by the remaining twenty-three Tirthankaras during their life-time for the benefit of living begins.
As seen above Mahavira is the twenty-fourth Tirthankara in this line of Tirthankaras. As Mahavira happens to be the last Tirthankara he is regarded by the common people as the founder of Jaina Religion. Obviously this is a misconception. Now the historians have come to accept the fact that Mahavira did not found Jaina religion but he preached the religion which was in existence from the remote past.

Ahimsa

he Jain ecological philosophy is virtually synonymous with the principle of ahimsa (non-violence) which runs through the Jain tradition like a golden thread.“Ahimsa parmo dharmah” (Non-violence is the supreme religion). Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara (Path-finder) of this era, who lived 2500 years ago in north India, consolidated the basic Jain teachings of peace, harmony and renunciation, taught two centuries earlier by the Tirthankara Parshva, and for thousands of years previously by the 22 other Tirthankaras of this era, beginning with Adinatha Rishabha. Mahavira threw new light on the perennial quest of the soul with the truth and discipline of ahimsa. He said:" There is nothing so small and subtle as the atom nor any element so vast as space. Similarly, there is no quality of soul more subtle than non-violence and no virtue of spirit greater than reverence for life.”
Ahimsa is a principle that Jains teach and practice not only towards human beings but towards all nature. It is an unequivocal teaching that is at once ancient and contemporary. The scriptures tell us: “All the Arhats (Venerable Ones) of the past, present and future discourse, counsel, proclaim, propound and prescribe thus in unison: Do not injure, abuse, oppress, enslave, insult, torment, torture or kill any creature or living being.” In this strife-torn world of hatred and hostilities, aggression and aggrandizement, and of unscrupulous and unbridled exploitation and consumerism, the Jain perspective finds the evil of violence writ large.
The teaching of ahimsa refers not only to wars and visible physical acts of violence but to violence in the hearts and minds of human beings, their lack of concern and compassion for their fellow humans and for the natural world. Ancient Jain texts explain that violence (Ahimsa) is not defined by actual harm, for this may be unintentional. It is the intention to harm, the absence of compassion, that makes action violent. Without violent thought there could be no violent actions. When violence enters our thoughts, we remember Tirthankara Mahavira’s words:
“You are that which you intend to hit, injure, insult, torment, persecute, torture, enslave or kill.”

In the regeneration and divinisation of man, the first step is to eliminate his beastly nature. The predominant trait in beasts is cruelty. Therefore, wise sages prescribe Ahimsa (non-injury). This is the most effective master-method to counteract and eradicate completely the brutal, cruel Pasu-Svabhava (bestial nature) in man.

Practice of Ahimsa develops love. Ahimsa is another name for truth or love. Ahimsa is universal love. It is pure love. It is divine Prem. Where there is love, there you will find Ahimsa. Where there is Ahimsa, there you will find love and selfless service. They all go together.

The one message of all saints and prophets of all times and climes, is the message of love, of Ahimsa, of selfless service. Ahimsa is the noblest and best of traits that are found expressed in the daily life and activities of perfected souls. Ahimsa is the one means, not only to attain Salvation, but also to enjoy uninterrupted peace and bliss. Man attains peace by injuring no living creature.

There is one religion - the religion of love, of peace. There is one message, the message of Ahimsa. Ahimsa is a supreme duty of man.

Ahimsa, or refraining from causing pain to any living creature, is a distinctive quality emphasized by Indian ethics. Ahimsa or non-violence has been the central doctrine of Indian culture from the earliest days of its history. Ahimsa is a great spiritual force.

Meaning Of Ahimsa

Ahimsa or non-injury, of course, implies non-killing. But, non-injury is not merely non-killing. In its comprehensive meaning, Ahimsa or non-injury means entire abstinence from causing any pain or harm whatsoever to any living creature, either by thought, word, or deed. Non-injury requires a harmless mind, mouth, and hand.
Ahimsa is not mere negative non-injury. It is positive, cosmic love. It is the development of a mental attitude in which hatred is replaced by love. Ahimsa is true sacrifice. Ahimsa is forgiveness. Ahimsa is Sakti (power). Ahimsa is true strength.

SUBTLE FORMS OF HIMSA

Only the ordinary people think that Ahimsa is not to hurt any living being physically. This is but the gross form of Ahimsa. The vow of Ahimsa is broken even by showing contempt towards another man, by entertaining unreasonable dislike for or prejudice towards anybody, by frowning at another man, by hating another man, by abusing another man, by speaking ill of others, by backbiting or vilifying, by harbouring thoughts of hatred, by uttering lies, or by ruining another man in any way whatsoever.
All harsh and rude speech is Himsa (violence or injury). Using harsh words to beggars, servants or inferiors is Himsa. Wounding the feelings of others by gesture, expression, tone of voice and unkind words is also Himsa. Slighting or showing deliberate discourtesy to a person before others is wanton Himsa. To approve of another's harsh actions is indirect Himsa. To fail to relieve another's pain, or even to neglect to go to the person in distress is a sort of Himsa. It is the sin of omission. Avoid strictly all forms of harshness, direct or indirect, positive or negative, immediate or delayed. Practice Ahimsa in its purest form and become divine. Ahimsa and Divinity are one

AHIMSA, A QUALITY OF THE STRONG

If you practice Ahimsa, you should put up with insults, rebukes, criticisms and assaults also. You should never retaliate nor wish to offend anybody even under extreme provocation. You should not entertain any evil thought against anybody. You should not harbour anger. You should not curse. You should be prepared to lose joyfully even your life in the cause of Truth. The Ultimate Truth can be attained only through Ahimsa.

Ahimsa is the acme of bravery. Ahimsa is not possible without fearlessness. Non-violence cannot be practiced by weak persons. Ahimsa cannot be practiced by a man who is terribly afraid of death and has no power of resistance and endurance. It is a shield, not of the effeminate, but of the potent. Ahimsa is a quality of the strong. It is a weapon of the strong. When a man beats you with a stick, you should not entertain any thought of retaliation or any unkind feeling towards the tormentor. Ahimsa is the perfection of forgiveness.

Remember the noble actions of great sages of yore. Jayadeva, the author of Gita-Govinda, gave large and rich present to his enemies who cut off his hands, and obtained Mukti (liberation) for them through his sincere prayers. He said: "O my lord! Thou hast given Mukti to Thy enemies, Ravana and Kamsa. Why canst Thou not give Mukti to my enemies now ?" A saint or a sage possesses a magnanimous heart.

Pavahari Baba carried the bag of vessels and followed the thief saying: "O Thief Narayana! I never knew that You visited my cottage. Pray accept these things." The thief was quite astonished. He left off his evil habit from that very second and became a disciple of Pavahari Baba.

Remember the noble actions of saints like Jayadeva and Pavahari Baba, you will have to follow their principles and ideals..

GRADATIONAL PRACTICE OF AHIMSA

determination, "I will not speak any harsh word to anybody from today". You may fail a hundred times. What does it matter ? You will slowly gain strength. Check the impulse of speech. Observe Mouna (silence). Practice Kshama or forgiveness. Say within yourself: "He is a baby-s

When thoughts of revenge and hatred arise in the mind, try to control the physical body and speech first. Do not utter evil and harsh words. Do not censure. Do not try to injure others. If you succeed in this by practice for some months, the negative thoughts of revenge, having no scope for manifesting outside, will die by themselves. It is extremely difficult to control such thoughts from the very beginning without having recourse to control of the body and speech first.
First control your physical body. When a man beats you, keep quiet. Suppress your feelings. Follow the instructions of Jesus Christ in his Sermon On The Mount: "If a man beats you on one cheek, turn to him the other cheek also. If a man takes away your coat, give him your shirt also." This is very difficult in the beginning. The old Samskaras (impressions) of revenge, of "a tooth for a tooth", "tit for tat", "an eye for an eye", and "paying in the same coin" will all force you to retaliate. But you will have to wait cooly. Reflect and meditate. Do Vichara or right enquiry. The mind will become calm. The opponent who was very furious will also become calm, because he does not get any opposition from your side. He gets astonished and terrified also, because you stand like a sage. By and by, you will gain immense strength. Keep the ideal before you. Try to get at it, though with faltering steps at first. Have a clear-cut mental image of Ahimsa and its immeasurable advantages.

After controlling the body, control your speech. Make a strong oul. He is ignorant, that is why he has done it. Let me excuse him this time. What do I gain by abusing him in return ?" Slowly give up Abhimana (ego-centred attachment). Abhimana is the root-cause of human sufferings.
Finally go to the thoughts and check the thought of injuring. Never even think of injuring anyone. One Self dwells in all. All are manifestations of One God. By injuring another, you injure your own Self. By serving another, you serve your own Self. Love all. Serve all. Hate none. Insult none. Injure none in thought, word and deed. Try to behold your own Self in all beings. This will promote Ahimsa.

BENEFITS OF THE PRACTICE OF AHIMSA

If you are established in Ahimsa, you have attained all virtues. Ahimsa is the pivot. All virtues revolve around Ahimsa. Just as all footprints are accommodated in those of the elephant, so also do all religious and ethical rules become merged in the great vow of Ahimsa.
Ahimsa is soul-force. Hate melts in the presence of love. Hate dissolves in the presence of Ahimsa. There is no power greater than Ahimsa. The practice of Ahimsa develops will-power to a considerable degree. The practice of Ahimsa will make you fearless. He who practices Ahimsa with real faith, can move the whole world, can tame wild animals, can win the hearts of all, and can subdue his enemies. He can do and undo things. The power of Ahimsa is infinitely more wonderful and subtler than electricity or magnetism.
The law of Ahimsa is as much exact and precise as the law of gravitation or cohesion. You must know the correct way to apply it intelligently and with scientific accuracy. If you are able to apply it with exactitude and precision, you can work wonders. You can command the elements and Nature also.

THE POWER OF AHIMSA

The power of Ahimsa is greater than the power of the intellect. It is easy to develop the intellect, but it is difficult to purify and develop the heart. The practice of Ahimsa develops the heart in a wonderful manner.
He who practices Ahimsa develops strong will-power. In his presence, enmity ceases. In his presence, cobra and frog, cow and tiger, cat and rat, wolf and lamb, will all live together in terms of intimate friendship. In his presence, all hostilities are given up. The term 'hostilities are given up' means that all beings - men, animals, birds and poisonous creatures will approach the practitioner without fear and do no harm to him. Their hostile nature disappears in them in his presence. The rat and the cat, the snake and the mongoose, and other beings that are enemies of each other by nature, give up their hostile feelings in the presence of the Yogi who is established in Ahimsa. Lions and tigers can never do any harm to such a Yogi. Such a Yogi can give definite orders to lion and tigers. They will obey. This is Bhuta-Siddhi (mastery over the elements) obtainable by the practice of Ahimsa. The practice of Ahimsa will eventually culminate in the realization of unity and oneness of life, or Advaitic (non-dual) Consciousness. The Yogi then enjoys the highest peace, bliss and immortality.

LIMITATIONS TO THE PRACTICE OF AHIMSA.,

Absolute Ahimsa is impossible. It is not possible to the most conscientious Sannyasin or monk. To practice that, you must avoid killing countless creatures while walking, sitting, eating, breathing, sleeping and drinking. You cannot find a single non-injurer in the world. You have to destroy life in order to live. It is physically impossible for you to obey the law of non-destruction of life, because the phagocytes of your blood also are destroying millions of dangerous intrusive spirilla, bacteria and germs.
According to one school of thought, if by the murder of a dacoit many lives are saved, it is not considered as Himsa. Ahimsa and Himsa are relative terms. Some say that one can defend oneself with instruments and use a little violence also when one is in danger; this is not considered to be Himsa. Westerners generally destroy their dear horses and dogs when they are in acute agony and when there is no way of relieving their sufferings. They wish that the soul should be immediately freed from the physical body. Motive is the chief factor that underlies everything.
A renunciate or monk should not defend himself and use violence even when his life is in jeopardy. To an ordinary man, Ahimsa should be the aim, but he will not fall from this principle if, out of sheer necessity and with no selfish aim, he takes recourse to Himsa occasionally. One should not give leniency to the mind in this respect. If you are lenient, the mind will always take the best advantage of you and goad you to do acts of violence. Give a rogue an inch, he will take an ell: the mind at once adapts this policy, if you give a long rope for its movement.
Ahimsa is never a policy. It is a sublime virtue. It is the fundamental quality of seekers after Truth. No Self-realization is possible without Ahimsa. It is through the practice of Ahimsa alone that you can cognize and reach the Supreme Self or Brahman. Those with whom it is a policy may fail many a time. They will be tempted to do violent acts also. On the contrary, those who strictly adhere to the vow of Ahimsa as a sacred creed or fundamentals cannon of Yoga, can never be duped into violence